Energy can exist in numerous forms, such as chemical, electrical, kinetic, potential, mechanical, thermal, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system. The total energy of a system per unit mass is denoted by e and is defined as Where: e is the specific energy in joules per kilogram (J/kg), […]
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Volumetric strain, also known as bulk strain or volume strain, is a measure of the change in volume of a material under the influence of stress or pressure. It is defined as the ratio of the change in volume (ΔV) to the original volume (V) of the material. The formula for volumetric strain (ϵvol​) in
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Normal strain, also known as axial strain, is a measure of the deformation or change in size of a material along the direction of the applied force or stress. It is defined as the ratio of the change in length (ΔL) to the original length (L) of the material. The formula for normal strain (ϵaxial​)
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The Poisson’s ratio is a material property that relates the lateral strain (strain perpendicular to the applied stress) to the axial strain (strain parallel to the applied stress) in a material when subjected to stress. It is denoted by the symbol ν (nu) and is a dimensionless quantity. The formula for Poisson’s ratio (ν) in
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Bulk stress, also known as volume stress or hydrostatic stress, is a measure of the pressure applied uniformly in all directions within a material. It is typically denoted by the symbol , σ (sigma) and is expressed in pascals (Pa) in the International System of Units (SI). The formula for bulk stress is given by:
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The compressibility factor (Z) is a dimensionless quantity used in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics to describe the deviation of a real gas from ideal gas behavior. It is defined as the ratio of the molar volume of a real gas to the molar volume of an ideal gas at the same temperature and pressure. The
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The second law of thermodynamics is a fundamental principle in physics, stating that in any natural thermodynamic process, the total entropy of a closed system (or the combination of a system and its surroundings) always increases over time or remains constant in ideal cases. This law is often expressed in several different forms, including the
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The Poynting vector, named after John Henry Poynting, is a mathematical quantity used in physics to represent the directional energy flux (or power per unit area) of an electromagnetic field. It describes the flow of electromagnetic energy in a particular direction through space. The formula for the Poynting vector (S) is given by: Where: S
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Enthalpy, often denoted as H, is a thermodynamic property that represents the total heat content of a system at constant pressure. It includes the internal energy of the system plus the product of pressure and volume. Enthalpy is particularly useful in systems where constant pressure conditions are maintained, such as in open systems. The formula
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The internal energy of an ideal gas is a measure of its microscopic kinetic and potential energies. For an ideal gas, it depends solely on the temperature of the gas and is independent of pressure or volume. The internal energy of an ideal gas is given by the equation: Where: U is the internal energy
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