Thermal strain refers to the deformation or change in dimensions of a material due to a change in temperature. It is calculated based on the material’s coefficient of thermal expansion (α) and the change in temperature (ΔT). Thermal strain is calculated using the formula: where: εthermal​ = Thermal strain (dimensionless) α = Coefficient of thermal […]
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Thermal stress refers to the stress that develops in a material due to a change in temperature. When a material is subjected to non-uniform temperature changes, different parts of the material expand or contract at different rates, leading to internal stresses. Thermal stress is calculated using the formula: where: σthermal​ = Thermal stress (in pascals,
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The percent reduction in area measures the decrease in cross-sectional area of a tensile specimen at the point of fracture compared to its original cross-sectional area. It is calculated using the formula: where: Ai​ is the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen (in square meters, m²). Af​ is the final cross-sectional area of the specimen
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Flexural strength, also known as bending strength, is a measure of a material’s ability to resist deformation under bending loads. It is an important property in structural engineering, particularly for beams and other components subjected to bending stresses. Flexural strength is calculated using the formula: ​​ where: σ_flexural​ = Flexural strength (in pascals, Pa or
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The percent elongation measures how much a material elongates before fracture during a tensile test. It is calculated using the formula: Percent Elongation where: L_f​ is the final length of the specimen after elongation (in meters, m). L_i​ is the initial gauge length of the specimen (in meters, m).
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Stiffness (K) is a measure of the force required to produce a unit deflection in a structure or material. It indicates how rigid or flexible a structure is when subjected to an external force. Formula for Stiffness (K): The formula for stiffness in the context of a spring or an elastic element is given by:
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The endurance limit (σe​) is the maximum stress amplitude that a material can withstand under cyclic loading without experiencing fatigue failure over an infinite number of cycles. The formula for calculating the endurance limit of a material is typically expressed as: ​​ where: σe​ = Endurance limit or fatigue limit (in pascals, Pa) σultimate​ =
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The heat of vaporization (also known as enthalpy of vaporization) is the amount of energy required to convert a unit mass of a substance from liquid to vapor at constant temperature and pressure. The formula for calculating the heat of vaporization (ΔHvap​) is: Where: ΔHvap​ is the heat of vaporization (in joules per kilogram or
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The heat of fusion, also known as the latent heat of fusion, is the amount of heat required to change a unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid state at its melting point. The formula to calculate the heat of fusion (Qf​) is: Where: Qf​ is the heat of fusion (in joules, J),
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Heat transfer by convection refers to the transfer of heat between a solid surface and a fluid (liquid or gas) in motion. The rate of heat transfer by convection can be calculated using Newton’s Law of Cooling/Heating, which states: Where: Q is the heat transfer rate (in watts, W) h is the convective heat transfer
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