Thermodynamics

The compressibility factor (Z) is a dimensionless quantity used in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics to describe the deviation of a real gas from ideal gas behavior. It is defined as the ratio of the molar volume of a real gas to the molar volume of an ideal gas at the same temperature and pressure. The […]

The second law of thermodynamics is a fundamental principle in physics, stating that in any natural thermodynamic process, the total entropy of a closed system (or the combination of a system and its surroundings) always increases over time or remains constant in ideal cases. This law is often expressed in several different forms, including the

The Poynting vector, named after John Henry Poynting, is a mathematical quantity used in physics to represent the directional energy flux (or power per unit area) of an electromagnetic field. It describes the flow of electromagnetic energy in a particular direction through space. The formula for the Poynting vector (S) is given by: Where: S

Enthalpy, often denoted as H, is a thermodynamic property that represents the total heat content of a system at constant pressure. It includes the internal energy of the system plus the product of pressure and volume. Enthalpy is particularly useful in systems where constant pressure conditions are maintained, such as in open systems. The formula

Gibbs free energy, denoted by  ΔG, is a thermodynamic potential that measures the maximum amount of reversible work that can be performed by a thermodynamic system at constant temperature and pressure. It’s named after the American physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs. Gibbs free energy is particularly useful in determining the spontaneity and equilibrium of chemical reactions.

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system; it can only change forms. Mathematically, it can be expressed as: Where: ΔU represents the change in internal energy of the system. Q represents the heat added to the